An individual�s response to
a stressful situation largely depends upon
the perceived events and how they are
interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has
distinguished between two types of
appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary.
Primary appraisal refers to the perception
of a new or changing environment as
positive, neutral or negative in its
consequences. Negative events are
appraised for their possible harm, threat
or challenge. Harm is the assessment of
the damage that has already been done by
an event. Threat is the assessment of
possible future damage that may be
brought about by the event. Challenge
appraisals are associated with more
confident expectations of the ability to cope
with the stressful event, the potential to
overcome and even profit from the event.
When we perceive an event as stressful, we
are likely to make a secondary appraisal,
which is the assessment of one�s coping
abilities and resources and whether they
will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat
or challenge of the event. These resources
may be mental, physical, personal or
social. If one thinks one has a positive
attitude, health, skills and social support
to deal with the crises s/he will feel less
stressed. This two-level appraisal process
determines not only our cognitive and
behavioural responses but also our
emotional and physiological responses to
external events.
These appraisals are very subjective
and will depend on many factors. One
factor is the past experience of dealing
with such a stressful condition. If one
has handled similar situations very
successfully in the past, they would be less
threatening for her/him. Another factor is
whether the stressful event is perceived as
controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery
or control over a situation. A person who
believes that s/he can control the onset of
a negative situation, or its adverse
consequences, will experience less amount
of stress than those who have no such
sense of personal control. For example, a
sense of self-confidence or efficacy can
determine whether the person is likely to
appraise the situation as a threat or a
challenge. Thus, the experience and
outcome of a stressor may vary from
individual to individual. Stress, includes all
those environmental and personal events,
which challenge or threaten the well-being
of a person. These stressors can be
external, such as environmental (noise, air
pollution), social (break-up with a friend,
loneliness) or psychological (conflict,
frustration) within the individual.
Very often, these stressors result in a
variety of stress reactions, which may be
physiological, behavioural, emotional, and
cognitive (see Fig in the previous page).
At the physiological
level, arousal plays a key role in stressrelated
behaviours. The hypothalamus
initiates action along two pathways. The
first pathway involves the autonomic
nervous system. The adrenal gland
releases large amount of catecholamines
(epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the
blood stream. This leads to physiological
changes seen in fight-or-flight response.
The second pathway involves the pituitary
gland, which secretes the corticosteroid
(cortisol) which provides energy. The
emotional reactions to experience of stress
include negative emotions such as fear,
anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression
or even denial. The behavioural responses
are virtually limitless, depending on the
nature of the stressful event. Confrontative
action against the stressor (fight) or
withdrawal from the threatening event
(flight) are two general categories of
behavioural responses. Cognitive
responses include beliefs about the harm
or threat an event poses and beliefs about
its causes or controllability. These include
responses such as inability to concentrate,
and intrusive, repetitive or morbid
thoughts.
As indicated in Figure in the previous page, the stresses
which people experience also vary in terms
of intensity (low intensity vs. high
intensity), duration (short-term vs. longterm),
complexity ( less complex vs. more
complex) and predictability (unexpected
vs. predictable). The outcome of stress
depends on the position of a particular
stressful experience along these
dimensions. Usually more intense,
prolonged or chronic, complex and
unanticipated stresses have more negative
consequences than have less intense,
short-term, less complex and expected
stresses. An individual�s experiences of
stress depend on the physiological strength
of that person. Thus, individuals with poor
physical health and weak constitution
would be more vulnerable than would be
those who enjoy good health and strong
constitution.
Psychological characteristics like
mental health, temperament, and selfconcept
are relevant to the experience of
stress. The cultural context in which we
live determines the meaning of any event
and defines the nature of response that is
expected under various conditions. Finally,
the stress experience will be determined by
the resources of the person, such as
money, social skills, coping style, support
networks, etc. All these factors determine
the appraisal of a given stressful situation.
Signs and Symptoms of Stress
The way we respond to stress varies
depending upon our personality, early
upbringing and life experiences. Everyone
has their own pattern of stress response.
So the warning signs may vary, as may
their intensity. Some of us know our
pattern of stress response and can gauge
the depth of the problem by the nature and
severity of our own symptoms or changes
in behaviour. These symptoms of stress
can be physical, emotional and
behavioural. Any of the symptoms can
indicate a degree of stress which, if left
unresolved, might have serious
implications.
|