With this background, we may now identify
different kinds of economic activities such
as hunting and gathering, pastoralism,
mining, fishing, agriculture, manufacturing
(industries), and various types of services�
trade, transport, education, health care and
administration. These are broadly grouped as
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
activities.
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Primary activities pertain to extraction of
raw materials from the earth�s surface. These
include hunting and gathering, pastoralism,
fishing, forestry, mining and agriculture.
Secondary activities include industries that
transform raw materials into finished goods
having higher value. For example,
manufacturing cotton textiles from cotton, and
iron and steel from iron ore come under
secondary activities.
Tertiary activities include all kinds of
services provided to people such as education,
health, trade and transport.
Quaternary activities represent a special
type of service, which is related to high
intellectual activities e.g. research and
development, high order of professional and
administrative service, information generation,
processing and transmission.
While labeling human activities as primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, let us not
think that they are independent of each other.
Their boundaries are often overlapping. With
advancements in science and technology, the
nature of production in all fields has changed
so greatly that all these sectors have become
interdependent.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Primary activities in economically developed
nations account for less than 5 per cent of
employment but in many developing countries
of the world, they still employ a major segment
of labour forces. In any case, primary activities
are almost the only source of food supply and
raw materials for industries. Among these
activities are included some of the most
primitive activities like hunting and gathering,
which sustained human beings for more than
95 per cent of their existence on the earth. Also
included are the modern agricultural systems.
In this chapter, we propose to discuss only the
primitive agricultural activities and mining.
Hunting and Gathering
Until 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as
hunters and gatherers. They occupied nearly
all the liveable space on the planet. At present,
not more than 1 in 100,000 persons (less than
0.0001 per cent) live mainly this way; probably
none does so entirely without any contact with
the modern world.
Historically, this form of economy involved
frequent migration in search of food. People
lived in small groups, having virtually no
private property. Simple implements like
spears, bows and arrows were used for
hunting. Locally available materials were used
for their clothing and shelter.
The foragers were very successful in
occupying a wide variety of habitats having
different climates and biological resources.
Fish and mammals from the sea provided
subsistence to the people inhabiting the harsh
landscapes of the polar coast. On the other
extreme, the hunting � gathering people
successfully colonised the tropical rainforests.
By and large, the foragers simply live off the
land without changing the natural ecosystem
in a major way.
The hunting-gathering people have
exhibited a great resistence. As recently as A.D.
1500, they occupied about one-third of the
globe, including whole of Australia, most of
North America and large tracts of South
America, Africa and North-east Asia. Since, then
their numbers have declined. The
twentieth century has witnessed profound
changes in their ways of living. Their land and
resources shrank as industrialisation and
urbanisation progressed. Present day huntersgatherers
are confined to a few pockets in
Australia, Africa, Asia, North America and
South America. The Arctic Inuit; Pygmies and
Kalahari San of Africa; Aboriginal Australians
such as Pintupi; Paliyan of South India; and
Semang of Malaysia are some examples of the
foragers, who represent the oldest adaptation
to human environment.
Pastoralism
The domestication of animals was one of the
early steps in the development of civilisation
. People living in different climatic
conditions selected and domesticated animals
prisoners and slaves. Greeks and Romans in
the ancient time operated their mines with
captive armies or indigenous peoples under
their control. By the Middle Ages, mining was
considered a noble profession. Mining guilds
in England and Germany were powerful
organisations as they controlled the production
of metals needed for arms and coinage. In
modern times, mining is no longer a major
employer. Mechanisation has increased
efficiency and productivity and hence only a
small percentage of work force is required in
this kind of activity now compared to earlier
times.
Globally, the mineral use has increased over
time. Since the industrial revolution, associated
technological developments and growing
population, have increased the use of minerals
at very high rates. During last century, mineral
use increased 13 times or more.
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AKHAND PRATAP SINGH
